Topic 7 原子、核与粒子物理 / Atomic, Nuclear & Particle Physics
原子结构 · 核物理 · 质能等价 · 粒子物理
7.1 原子结构 / Atomic Structure
卢瑟福散射实验 / Rutherford Scattering
$$\text{散射角 } \theta \approx \frac{2kq_\alpha Q_N}{m_\alpha v^2 b} \qquad b = \frac{kq_\alpha Q_N}{m_\alpha v^2}\cot\frac{\theta}{2}$$
• 大部分 $\alpha$ 粒子直穿(原子大部分是空的)
• 少数发生偏转(受到原子核的库仑力排斥)
• 极个别反弹回来($\theta > 90^\circ$)——说明原子核很小且带正电
由此提出核式结构模型(nuclear model):原子由很小的原子核($\sim 10^{-15}$ m)和核外电子($\sim 10^{-10}$ m)组成。$b$ 为碰撞参数(impact parameter),即 $\alpha$ 粒子到原子核的垂直距离。$b$ 越小,散射角 $\theta$ 越大。
• Most $\alpha$ particles passed straight through (atom is mostly empty space)
• Some were deflected (Coulomb repulsion from the nucleus)
• Very few bounced back ($\theta > 90^\circ$) — the nucleus is small and positively charged
This led to the nuclear model: atom consists of a tiny nucleus ($\sim 10^{-15}$ m) and orbiting electrons ($\sim 10^{-10}$ m). $b$ is the impact parameter; smaller $b$ gives larger scattering angle $\theta$.
📐 卢瑟福散射角的推导 / Derivation of Rutherford Scattering Angle
$\alpha$ 粒子(电荷 $q_\alpha = 2e$,质量 $m_\alpha$)以初速度 $v$ 接近原子核(电荷 $Q_N = Ze$)。原子核的库仑力提供排斥力。
碰撞参数 $b$ 与散射角 $\theta$ 的关系可以通过角动量和能量守恒推导:
角动量守恒(关于原子核):$m_\alpha v b = m_\alpha v' r_{\min}$
其中 $v'$ 为最接近原子核时的速度。
能量守恒:$\frac12 m_\alpha v^2 = \frac12 m_\alpha v'^2 + \frac{k q_\alpha Q_N}{r_{\min}}$
在散射过程中,动量变化沿对称轴方向:$\Delta p = 2m_\alpha v \sin(\theta/2)$
库仑力的冲量:$\int F_\perp dt \approx \frac{2k q_\alpha Q_N}{b v}$
联立可得:
$$\cot\frac{\theta}{2} = \frac{m_\alpha v^2 b}{k q_\alpha Q_N}$$
所以:$b = \frac{k q_\alpha Q_N}{m_\alpha v^2} \cot\frac{\theta}{2}$
当 $b \to 0$ 时,$\theta \to \pi$(反弹);当 $b \to \infty$ 时,$\theta \to 0$(直穿)。
$\alpha$ particle ($q_\alpha = 2e$, $m_\alpha$) approaches nucleus ($Q_N = Ze$) at speed $v$. Coulomb repulsion provides the force.
Angular momentum conservation about nucleus: $m_\alpha v b = m_\alpha v' r_{\min}$
Energy conservation: $\frac12 m_\alpha v^2 = \frac12 m_\alpha v'^2 + \frac{k q_\alpha Q_N}{r_{\min}}$
Momentum change along symmetry axis: $\Delta p = 2m_\alpha v \sin(\theta/2)$
Coulomb impulse: $\int F_\perp dt \approx \frac{2k q_\alpha Q_N}{b v}$
Combining: $\cot\frac{\theta}{2} = \frac{m_\alpha v^2 b}{k q_\alpha Q_N}$
So: $b = \frac{k q_\alpha Q_N}{m_\alpha v^2} \cot\frac{\theta}{2}$
As $b \to 0$, $\theta \to \pi$ (back-scatter); as $b \to \infty$, $\theta \to 0$ (straight through).
玻尔模型 / Bohr Model
$$r_n = n^2 \frac{h^2 \epsilon_0}{\pi m e^2} \qquad E_n = -\frac{m e^4}{8 \epsilon_0^2 h^2} \cdot \frac{1}{n^2} = -\frac{13.6}{n^2}\ \text{eV}$$
• 定态假设:电子在特定轨道上运动时不辐射能量
• 角动量量子化:$m v r_n = n\hbar = n\frac{h}{2\pi}$,$n = 1,2,3,\ldots$
• 跃迁假设:电子从高能级跃迁到低能级时辐射光子,$hf = E_i - E_f$
基态($n=1$)能量 $E_1 = -13.6$ eV。$r_n = n^2 a_0$,其中 $a_0 = 0.529\ \text{\AA} = 5.29 \times 10^{-11}$ m 为玻尔半径。电离能(ionization energy)= 13.6 eV。
• Stationary states: electrons in specific orbits don't radiate energy
• Angular momentum quantization: $m v r_n = n\hbar = n h/2\pi$, $n = 1,2,3,\ldots$
• Transition postulate: electron jumping from higher to lower level emits a photon, $hf = E_i - E_f$
Ground state ($n=1$) energy $E_1 = -13.6$ eV. $r_n = n^2 a_0$, $a_0 = 0.529\ \text{\AA} = 5.29 \times 10^{-11}$ m is the Bohr radius. Ionization energy = 13.6 eV.
📐 玻尔能级的推导 / Derivation of Bohr Energy Levels
第一步:库仑力提供向心力
$F = \frac{1}{4\pi\epsilon_0} \frac{e^2}{r_n^2} = \frac{m v^2}{r_n}$
整理得:$v^2 = \frac{e^2}{4\pi\epsilon_0 m r_n}$ ... (1)
第二步:角动量量子化条件
$m v r_n = n \frac{h}{2\pi} = n \hbar$
$v = \frac{n \hbar}{m r_n}$ ... (2)
第三步:求轨道半径
将 (2) 代入 (1):
$\frac{n^2 \hbar^2}{m^2 r_n^2} = \frac{e^2}{4\pi\epsilon_0 m r_n}$
解出 $r_n$:
$r_n = \frac{n^2 h^2 \epsilon_0}{\pi m e^2} = n^2 a_0$
其中玻尔半径 $a_0 = \frac{h^2 \epsilon_0}{\pi m e^2} = 5.29 \times 10^{-11}$ m
第四步:求总能量
电子总能量 = 动能 + 势能:
$E_n = \frac12 m v^2 - \frac{1}{4\pi\epsilon_0} \frac{e^2}{r_n}$
由 (1) 知 $m v^2 = \frac{e^2}{4\pi\epsilon_0 r_n}$,所以 $\frac12 m v^2 = \frac{e^2}{8\pi\epsilon_0 r_n}$
$E_n = \frac{e^2}{8\pi\epsilon_0 r_n} - \frac{e^2}{4\pi\epsilon_0 r_n} = -\frac{e^2}{8\pi\epsilon_0 r_n}$
代入 $r_n$ 表达式:
$E_n = -\frac{m e^4}{8 \epsilon_0^2 h^2} \cdot \frac{1}{n^2} = -\frac{13.6}{n^2}\ \text{eV}$
可见:$n$ 增加 → $E_n$ 增大(负得少)。当 $n \to \infty$ 时 $E_\infty = 0$(电离)。
Step 1: Coulomb force provides centripetal force
$F = e^2/(4\pi\epsilon_0 r_n^2) = m v^2/r_n$
$v^2 = e^2/(4\pi\epsilon_0 m r_n)$ ... (1)
Step 2: Angular momentum quantization
$m v r_n = n h/2\pi = n \hbar$ → $v = n\hbar/(m r_n)$ ... (2)
Step 3: Orbital radius
Substitute (2) into (1): $r_n = n^2 h^2 \epsilon_0/(\pi m e^2) = n^2 a_0$
Bohr radius $a_0 = h^2 \epsilon_0/(\pi m e^2) = 5.29 \times 10^{-11}$ m
Step 4: Total energy
$E_n = \frac12 m v^2 - e^2/(4\pi\epsilon_0 r_n)$
$\frac12 m v^2 = e^2/(8\pi\epsilon_0 r_n)$
$E_n = -e^2/(8\pi\epsilon_0 r_n)$
$E_n = -m e^4/(8 \epsilon_0^2 h^2) \cdot 1/n^2 = -13.6/n^2$ eV
能级与光谱 / Energy Levels and Spectra
$$\Delta E = hf = \frac{hc}{\lambda} \qquad \frac{1}{\lambda} = R_H\left(\frac{1}{n_f^2} - \frac{1}{n_i^2}\right) \qquad R_H = 1.097 \times 10^7\ \text{m}^{-1}$$
吸收光谱(absorption spectrum):当连续光谱穿过气体时,特定波长的光被吸收(电子吸收光子跃迁到高能级),形成暗线。
氢原子光谱线系:
• 莱曼系(Lyman series):$n_f = 1$(紫外)
• 巴耳末系(Balmer series):$n_f = 2$(可见光)
• 帕邢系(Paschen series):$n_f = 3$(红外)
里德伯公式(Rydberg formula):$\frac{1}{\lambda} = R_H (1/n_f^2 - 1/n_i^2)$,$R_H = 1.097 \times 10^7$ m$^{-1}$。
Absorption spectrum: when continuous light passes through a gas, specific wavelengths are absorbed (electrons absorb photons to jump to higher levels), producing dark lines.
Hydrogen spectral series:
• Lyman series: $n_f = 1$ (ultraviolet)
• Balmer series: $n_f = 2$ (visible)
• Paschen series: $n_f = 3$ (infrared)
Rydberg formula: $1/\lambda = R_H (1/n_f^2 - 1/n_i^2)$, $R_H = 1.097 \times 10^7$ m$^{-1}$.
📐 从玻尔模型推导里德伯公式 / Deriving Rydberg Formula from Bohr Model
电子从高能级 $n_i$ 跃迁到低能级 $n_f$,放出的光子能量:
$\Delta E = E_{n_i} - E_{n_f} = \frac{m e^4}{8 \epsilon_0^2 h^2} \left(\frac{1}{n_f^2} - \frac{1}{n_i^2}\right)$
光子波长满足 $\Delta E = \frac{hc}{\lambda}$:
$\frac{hc}{\lambda} = \frac{m e^4}{8 \epsilon_0^2 h^2} \left(\frac{1}{n_f^2} - \frac{1}{n_i^2}\right)$
所以:
$\frac{1}{\lambda} = \frac{m e^4}{8 \epsilon_0^2 h^3 c} \left(\frac{1}{n_f^2} - \frac{1}{n_i^2}\right)$
定义里德伯常数:
$R_H = \frac{m e^4}{8 \epsilon_0^2 h^3 c} = 1.097 \times 10^7\ \text{m}^{-1}$
即得:$\frac{1}{\lambda} = R_H \left(\frac{1}{n_f^2} - \frac{1}{n_i^2}\right)$
例如巴耳末系第一线($H_\alpha$):$n_i = 3 \to n_f = 2$
$\frac{1}{\lambda} = 1.097 \times 10^7 \times (1/4 - 1/9) = 1.097 \times 10^7 \times 0.1389 = 1.524 \times 10^6$ m$^{-1}$
$\lambda = 656$ nm(红色可见光)
Electron transition from $n_i$ to $n_f$ emits a photon:
$\Delta E = \frac{m e^4}{8 \epsilon_0^2 h^2} (1/n_f^2 - 1/n_i^2)$
Using $\Delta E = hc/\lambda$:
$1/\lambda = \frac{m e^4}{8 \epsilon_0^2 h^3 c} (1/n_f^2 - 1/n_i^2)$
Rydberg constant: $R_H = m e^4/(8 \epsilon_0^2 h^3 c) = 1.097 \times 10^7$ m$^{-1}$
Thus: $1/\lambda = R_H (1/n_f^2 - 1/n_i^2)$
Example — Balmer $H_\alpha$ line ($n_i = 3 \to n_f = 2$):
$1/\lambda = 1.097 \times 10^7 \times (1/4 - 1/9) = 1.524 \times 10^6$ m$^{-1}$
$\lambda = 656$ nm (red visible light)
解题过程 / Solution
$\lambda = \frac{hc}{\Delta E} = \frac{6.63 \times 10^{-34} \times 3.00 \times 10^8}{1.89 \times 1.60 \times 10^{-19}}$
$= \frac{1.989 \times 10^{-25}}{3.024 \times 10^{-19}} = 6.56 \times 10^{-7}$ m = 656 nm
或用里德伯公式:$1/\lambda = 1.097 \times 10^7 \times (1/4 - 1/9) = 1.524 \times 10^6$ m$^{-1}$
$\lambda = 1/1.524 \times 10^6 = 6.56 \times 10^{-7}$ m ✓
(b) $f = c/\lambda = 3.00 \times 10^8 / 6.56 \times 10^{-7} = 4.57 \times 10^{14}$ Hz
(c) $\Delta E = 1.89$ eV = $1.89 \times 1.60 \times 10^{-19} = 3.02 \times 10^{-19}$ J
$\lambda = hc/\Delta E = 6.56 \times 10^{-7}$ m = 656 nm
(b) $f = c/\lambda = 4.57 \times 10^{14}$ Hz
(c) $\Delta E = 1.89$ eV = $3.02 \times 10^{-19}$ J
解题过程 / Solution
$q_\alpha = 2 \times 1.60 \times 10^{-19} = 3.20 \times 10^{-19}$ C
$Q_N = 79 \times 1.60 \times 10^{-19} = 1.264 \times 10^{-17}$ C
$k = 8.99 \times 10^9$ N·m$^2$/C$^2$
分子:$m_\alpha v^2 b = 6.64 \times 10^{-27} \times (2.0 \times 10^7)^2 \times 1.0 \times 10^{-14}$
$= 6.64 \times 10^{-27} \times 4.0 \times 10^{14} \times 1.0 \times 10^{-14} = 2.656 \times 10^{-26}$
分母:$k q_\alpha Q_N = 8.99 \times 10^9 \times 3.20 \times 10^{-19} \times 1.264 \times 10^{-17}$
$= 8.99 \times 10^9 \times 4.045 \times 10^{-36} = 3.636 \times 10^{-26}$
$\cot(\theta/2) = 2.656 \times 10^{-26} / 3.636 \times 10^{-26} = 0.730$
$\theta/2 = \cot^{-1}(0.730) = 53.9^\circ$
$\theta = 108^\circ$(大角度散射,几乎反弹)
$q_\alpha = 3.20 \times 10^{-19}$ C, $Q_N = 79e = 1.264 \times 10^{-17}$ C
Numerator = $2.656 \times 10^{-26}$, Denominator = $3.636 \times 10^{-26}$
$\cot(\theta/2) = 0.730$ → $\theta/2 = 53.9^\circ$, $\theta = 108^\circ$
7.2 核物理 / Nuclear Physics
原子核的基本性质 / Basic Properties of the Nucleus
$$^A_Z\text{X} \qquad N = A - Z$$
• $A$ — 质量数(mass number)= 质子数 + 中子数
• $Z$ — 原子序数(atomic number / proton number)
• $N = A - Z$ — 中子数(neutron number)
同位素(isotopes):质子数相同而中子数不同的原子核。同位素的化学性质相同(因电子结构相同),但核性质不同。例如 $^1_1\text{H}$(普通氢)、$^2_1\text{H}$(氘 deuterium)、$^3_1\text{H}$(氚 tritium)。
• $A$ = mass number (protons + neutrons)
• $Z$ = atomic number (proton number)
• $N = A - Z$ = neutron number
Isotopes: same number of protons, different number of neutrons. Isotopes share the same chemical properties (same electron structure) but differ in nuclear properties. E.g., $^1_1\text{H}$ (hydrogen), $^2_1\text{H}$ (deuterium), $^3_1\text{H}$ (tritium).
放射性衰变 / Radioactive Decay
$$\alpha: ^A_Z\text{X} \to ^{A-4}_{Z-2}\text{Y} + ^4_2\alpha \qquad \beta^-: ^A_Z\text{X} \to ^A_{Z+1}\text{Y} + ^0_{-1}\beta + \bar\nu_e \qquad \gamma: ^A_Z\text{X}^* \to ^A_Z\text{X} + \gamma$$
• $\alpha$ 衰变:放出 $\alpha$ 粒子($^4_2\text{He}$ 原子核)。质量数减 4,原子序数减 2。穿透力弱(一张纸可阻挡),电离能力强。
• $\beta^-$ 衰变:中子转变为质子,放出电子和反电子中微子。原子序数加 1,质量数不变。穿透力中等(几毫米铝可阻挡)。
• $\beta^+$ 衰变:质子转变为中子,放出正电子和中微子。原子序数减 1。
• $\gamma$ 衰变:原子核从激发态回到基态,放出高能光子。穿透力强(需要几厘米铅阻挡)。常在 $\alpha$ 或 $\beta$ 衰变后伴随发生。
• $\alpha$ decay: emits an $\alpha$ particle ($^4_2\text{He}$ nucleus). $A$ decreases by 4, $Z$ by 2. Low penetration (stopped by paper), high ionization.
• $\beta^-$ decay: neutron → proton, emitting electron and antineutrino. $Z$ increases by 1, $A$ unchanged. Medium penetration (a few mm of Al).
• $\beta^+$ decay: proton → neutron, emitting positron and neutrino. $Z$ decreases by 1.
• $\gamma$ decay: excited nucleus returns to ground state, emitting high-energy photon. High penetration (needs cm of Pb). Often follows $\alpha$ or $\beta$ decay.
📐 $\beta$ 衰变的微观机制 / Microscopic Mechanism of $\beta$ Decay
原子核内的一个中子转变为质子:
$n \to p + e^- + \bar\nu_e$
其中 $\bar\nu_e$ 是反电子中微子(antineutrino)。
中子和质子的质量差:$\Delta m = m_n - m_p = 1.293$ MeV/c$^2$
释放的能量分布在电子和中微子之间,因此 $\beta$ 粒子的能量是连续谱(不是离散的!)。
中微子的提出(Pauli, 1930):为解释 $\beta$ 衰变中看似"丢失"的能量而提出。直到 1956 年才被实验证实(Reines & Cowan)。
$\beta^+$ 衰变:
原子核内的一个质子转变为中子:
$p \to n + e^+ + \nu_e$
质子的质量小于中子,因此只有在原子核内才能发生(需要原子核提供额外能量)。$e^+$ 是正电子(positron),电子的反粒子。
A neutron in the nucleus transforms into a proton:
$n \to p + e^- + \bar\nu_e$
The antineutrino $\bar\nu_e$ carries away part of the energy, which is why $\beta$ particles have a continuous energy spectrum.
The neutrino was proposed by Pauli (1930) to explain the "missing" energy in $\beta$ decay, and confirmed experimentally in 1956 (Reines & Cowan).
$\beta^+$ decay:
A proton transforms into a neutron:
$p \to n + e^+ + \nu_e$
$e^+$ is the positron — the antiparticle of the electron. This only occurs inside nuclei where the nuclear environment provides additional energy.
衰变定律与半衰期 / Decay Law and Half-Life
$$N = N_0 e^{-\lambda t} \qquad \frac{dN}{dt} = -\lambda N \qquad T_{1/2} = \frac{\ln 2}{\lambda} = \frac{0.693}{\lambda}$$
$N$ = 经过时间 $t$ 后剩余的原子数
$N_0$ = 初始原子数
$\lambda$ = 衰变常数(decay constant),单位 s$^{-1}$
半衰期(half-life)$T_{1/2}$:原子核数量减少到一半所需的时间。$T_{1/2} = \ln 2 / \lambda = 0.693/\lambda$。
活度(activity)$A = \lambda N = A_0 e^{-\lambda t}$,单位贝可勒尔(Bq, Becquerel),$1\ \text{Bq} = 1$ 衰变/秒。旧单位居里(Ci):$1\ \text{Ci} = 3.7 \times 10^{10}$ Bq。
$N$ = remaining nuclei after time $t$
$N_0$ = initial number
$\lambda$ = decay constant (s$^{-1}$)
Half-life $T_{1/2}$: time for half the nuclei to decay. $T_{1/2} = \ln 2 / \lambda = 0.693/\lambda$.
Activity $A = \lambda N = A_0 e^{-\lambda t}$, measured in becquerel (Bq), $1\ \text{Bq} = 1$ decay/s.
📐 衰变定律的推导 / Derivation of Decay Law
第一步:写出微分方程
衰变速率与现有原子数成正比:
$\frac{dN}{dt} = -\lambda N$
负号表示原子数在减少,$\lambda$ 为衰变常数。
第二步:分离变量积分
$\frac{dN}{N} = -\lambda dt$
两边积分:$\int_{N_0}^{N} \frac{dN}{N} = -\lambda \int_0^t dt$
$\ln N - \ln N_0 = -\lambda t$
$\ln\frac{N}{N_0} = -\lambda t$
第三步:解出 $N$
$\frac{N}{N_0} = e^{-\lambda t}$
$N = N_0 e^{-\lambda t}$
第四步:推导半衰期公式
当 $t = T_{1/2}$ 时,$N = N_0/2$:
$\frac{N_0}{2} = N_0 e^{-\lambda T_{1/2}}$
$\frac12 = e^{-\lambda T_{1/2}}$
$\ln\frac12 = -\lambda T_{1/2}$
$-\ln 2 = -\lambda T_{1/2}$
$T_{1/2} = \frac{\ln 2}{\lambda} = \frac{0.693}{\lambda}$
可见:半衰期仅取决于衰变常数 $\lambda$,与初始数量无关。半衰期长的核素衰变得慢($\lambda$ 小)。
Step 1: Differential equation
$dN/dt = -\lambda N$
Step 2: Separate and integrate
$dN/N = -\lambda dt$
$\ln N - \ln N_0 = -\lambda t$
$\ln(N/N_0) = -\lambda t$
Step 3: Solve for $N$
$N = N_0 e^{-\lambda t}$
Step 4: Half-life
$N_0/2 = N_0 e^{-\lambda T_{1/2}}$
$1/2 = e^{-\lambda T_{1/2}}$
$\ln(1/2) = -\lambda T_{1/2}$
$T_{1/2} = \ln 2 / \lambda = 0.693/\lambda$
解题过程 / Solution
转换为 SI 单位:$0.0693 / (24 \times 3600) = 8.02 \times 10^{-7}$ s$^{-1}$
(b) $A = A_0 e^{-\lambda t} = 800 \times e^{-0.0693 \times 30} = 800 \times e^{-2.079}$
$A = 800 \times 0.125 = 100$ Bq
另一种方法:30 天 = 3 个半衰期 → $A = 800 \times (1/2)^3 = 800/8 = 100$ Bq ✓
(c) $100 = 800 e^{-0.0693 t}$
$0.125 = e^{-0.0693 t}$
$\ln(0.125) = -0.0693 t$
$t = -\ln(0.125)/0.0693 = -(-2.079)/0.0693 = 30$ 天
(b) $A = A_0 e^{-\lambda t} = 800 e^{-0.0693 \times 30} = 100$ Bq
(c) $100 = 800 e^{-0.0693 t}$ → $t = 30$ days
解题过程 / Solution
$^{238}_{92}\text{U} \to ^{234}_{90}\text{Th} + ^4_2\alpha$
验证:质量数 $238 = 234 + 4$ ✓
原子序数 $92 = 90 + 2$ ✓
衰变产物是 $^{234}_{90}\text{Th}$(钍-234,thorium-234)。它本身具有放射性,会继续经历 $\beta^-$ 衰变。
铀-238 的完整衰变链:$^{238}\text{U} \xrightarrow{\alpha} ^{234}\text{Th} \xrightarrow{\beta^-} ^{234}\text{Pa} \xrightarrow{\beta^-} ^{234}\text{U} \xrightarrow{\alpha} ^{230}\text{Th} \to \ldots \to ^{206}\text{Pb}$(稳定)
Check: $238 = 234 + 4$ ✓, $92 = 90 + 2$ ✓
The product is $^{234}_{90}\text{Th}$ (thorium-234), which is itself radioactive.
Uranium-238 decay chain: $^{238}\text{U} \to ^{234}\text{Th} \to ^{234}\text{Pa} \to ^{234}\text{U} \to \ldots \to ^{206}\text{Pb}$
应用:碳-14 测年法 / Application: Carbon-14 Dating
原理:宇宙射线产生的中子与大气中的 $^{14}\text{N}$ 反应生成 $^{14}\text{C}$:$^{14}_7\text{N} + n \to ^{14}_6\text{C} + p$。
$^{14}\text{C}$ 半衰期 5730 年,在大气中浓度相对稳定(通过光合作用和食物链进入生物体)。生物死亡后停止与大气中的碳交换,$^{14}\text{C}$ 因衰变而减少。
通过测量$^{14}\text{C}$ 的剩余比例,可推断死者的年代。适用于约 500-50000 年前的有机样品。
计算公式:$t = \frac{T_{1/2}}{\ln 2} \ln\frac{N_0}{N} = \frac{5730}{0.693} \ln\frac{N_0}{N}$ 年
Principle: cosmic ray neutrons react with atmospheric $^{14}\text{N}$ to produce $^{14}\text{C}$: $^{14}_7\text{N} + n \to ^{14}_6\text{C} + p$.
$^{14}\text{C}$ half-life = 5730 years, concentration in atmosphere is roughly constant. Living organisms maintain equilibrium with atmospheric $^{14}\text{C}$ through photosynthesis and the food chain. After death, $^{14}\text{C}$ decays without replenishment.
By measuring the remaining $^{14}\text{C}$ ratio, the time of death can be estimated. Applicable to organic samples 500-50000 years old.
$t = \frac{T_{1/2}}{\ln 2} \ln\frac{N_0}{N} = \frac{5730}{0.693} \ln\frac{N_0}{N}$ years
应用:核医学 / Application: Nuclear Medicine
• PET 扫描(Positron Emission Tomography):注入正电子发射同位素(如 $^{18}\text{F}$),正电子与电子湮灭产生两个 $\gamma$ 光子(方向相反),用探测器定位,重建三维图像。
• 放射治疗:使用 $\gamma$ 射线(如 $^{60}\text{Co}$)或电子束杀死癌细胞。
• 成像示踪剂:$^{99m}\text{Tc}$(锝-99m,半衰期 6 小时)用于 SPECT 扫描。$^{131}\text{I}$ 用于甲状腺成像和治疗。
关键要素:合适的半衰期(不宜太短也不宜太长)、合适的辐射类型和能量、生物靶向性。
• PET scans: positron-emitting isotopes (e.g., $^{18}\text{F}$) annihilate with electrons, producing two back-to-back $\gamma$ photons. Detection enables 3D image reconstruction.
• Radiotherapy: $\gamma$ rays (e.g., $^{60}\text{Co}$) or electron beams to kill cancer cells.
• Imaging tracers: $^{99m}\text{Tc}$ (technetium-99m, half-life 6 hours) for SPECT scans. $^{131}\text{I}$ for thyroid imaging and therapy.
Key factors: appropriate half-life, suitable radiation type and energy, biological targeting.
应用:核电站 / Application: Nuclear Power
• 核裂变:重原子核(如 $^{235}\text{U}$)吸收中子后分裂为两个中等质量的原子核,同时放出 2-3 个中子和大量能量。
例:$^{235}_{92}\text{U} + n \to ^{141}_{56}\text{Ba} + ^{92}_{36}\text{Kr} + 3n + \text{能量}$
每个裂变释放约 200 MeV 能量。
• 链式反应(chain reaction):裂变放出的中子引发更多裂变。
• 临界质量(critical mass):维持自持链式反应所需的最小裂变材料质量。
• 控制棒(控制中子吸收)、减速剂(moderator,减慢中子速度)、冷却剂(传热)
核聚变(nuclear fusion)是轻核结合成较重核的过程,如太阳中的 $p-p$ 链:$4p \to ^4_2\text{He} + 2e^+ + 2\nu_e + 26.7$ MeV。
聚变比裂变释放更多能量,燃料(氢同位素)丰富,但实现可控聚变仍面临巨大工程挑战。
• Nuclear fission: a heavy nucleus (e.g., $^{235}\text{U}$) absorbs a neutron and splits into two medium-mass nuclei, releasing 2-3 neutrons and energy ($\sim$200 MeV per fission).
• Chain reaction: neutrons from fission trigger more fissions.
• Critical mass: minimum mass needed for a self-sustaining chain reaction.
• Control rods (absorb neutrons), moderator (slow down neutrons), coolant (transfer heat).
Nuclear fusion is the combining of light nuclei into heavier ones, e.g., the solar $p-p$ chain: $4p \to ^4_2\text{He} + 2e^+ + 2\nu_e + 26.7$ MeV. Fusion releases more energy than fission, with abundant fuel (hydrogen isotopes), but controlled fusion remains a major engineering challenge.
7.3 质能等价 / Mass-Energy Equivalence
爱因斯坦质能关系 / Einstein's Mass-Energy Relation
$$E = mc^2 \qquad \Delta E = \Delta m \cdot c^2 \qquad 1\ \text{u} = 1.661 \times 10^{-27}\ \text{kg} = 931.5\ \text{MeV}/c^2$$
$E = mc^2$ — 质量 $m$ 对应的能量 $E$ 为 $m$ 乘以光速平方。
$\Delta E = \Delta m \cdot c^2$ — 质量变化 $\Delta m$ 伴随能量变化 $\Delta E$。
原子质量单位(atomic mass unit, u):$1\ \text{u} = 1.661 \times 10^{-27}$ kg,对应的能量 $= 931.5$ MeV。
即 $1\ \text{u} \times c^2 = 931.5$ MeV(兆电子伏特)。
换算:$1\ \text{eV} = 1.60 \times 10^{-19}$ J,$1\ \text{MeV} = 10^6$ eV。
$E = mc^2$ — energy $E$ corresponding to mass $m$ is $m$ times the speed of light squared.
$\Delta E = \Delta m \cdot c^2$ — a mass change $\Delta m$ is accompanied by an energy change $\Delta E$.
Atomic mass unit (u): $1\ \text{u} = 1.661 \times 10^{-27}$ kg, equivalent energy $= 931.5$ MeV.
$1\ \text{u} \times c^2 = 931.5$ MeV.
Conversions: $1\ \text{eV} = 1.60 \times 10^{-19}$ J, $1\ \text{MeV} = 10^6$ eV.
质量亏损与结合能 / Mass Defect and Binding Energy
$$\Delta m = Z m_p + N m_n - m_{\text{核}} \qquad E_b = \Delta m \cdot c^2 \qquad \text{BE/A} = \frac{E_b}{A}$$
$\Delta m = Z m_p + N m_n - m_{\text{核}}$
这"丢失"的质量转化成了结合能(binding energy)$E_b = \Delta m \cdot c^2$——将原子核拆解成单个核子所需要的能量,或者核子结合成原子核时释放的能量。
平均结合能(binding energy per nucleon)BE/A = $E_b/A$,表示每个核子平均贡献的结合能。BE/A 越大,原子核越稳定。
BE/A 曲线(BE/A vs A)的特点:
• 先上升(轻核聚变释放能量)
• 在 $A \approx 56$(Fe-56)处达到最大值 $\approx 8.8$ MeV/nucleon
• 缓慢下降(重核裂变释放能量)
• 这一曲线同时解释了核聚变和核裂变都能释放能量的原因。
$\Delta m = Z m_p + N m_n - m_{\text{nucleus}}$
This "missing" mass is converted to binding energy $E_b = \Delta m \cdot c^2$ — the energy required to separate the nucleus into individual nucleons (or released when nucleons bind together).
Binding energy per nucleon BE/A = $E_b/A$ — higher BE/A means a more stable nucleus.
The BE/A curve features:
• Rises at low $A$ (fusion of light nuclei releases energy)
• Peaks at $A \approx 56$ (Fe-56, $\approx 8.8$ MeV/nucleon)
• Gradually falls for heavy nuclei (fission releases energy)
📐 结合能的推导 / Derivation of Binding Energy from Mass Defect
已知质量:
质子质量 $m_p = 1.007276\ \text{u}$
中子质量 $m_n = 1.008665\ \text{u}$
$\alpha$ 粒子质量 $m_\alpha = 4.001506\ \text{u}$
(注:实际计算中常用原子质量,包含电子质量,但电子质量在两侧抵消)
第一步:计算质量亏损
$\Delta m = 2m_p + 2m_n - m_\alpha$
$\Delta m = 2 \times 1.007276 + 2 \times 1.008665 - 4.001506$
$\Delta m = 2.014552 + 2.017330 - 4.001506$
$\Delta m = 4.031882 - 4.001506 = 0.030376\ \text{u}$
第二步:转换为结合能
$E_b = \Delta m \times 931.5\ \text{MeV/u}$
$E_b = 0.030376 \times 931.5 = 28.3$ MeV
第三步:计算平均结合能
$\text{BE/A} = E_b/A = 28.3/4 = 7.07$ MeV/nucleon
$\alpha$ 粒子的结合能较大,说明它非常稳定——这就是为什么 $\alpha$ 衰变中放出的是 $\alpha$ 粒子而不是单个核子。
Known masses:
$m_p = 1.007276\ \text{u}$
$m_n = 1.008665\ \text{u}$
$m_\alpha = 4.001506\ \text{u}$
Step 1: Mass defect
$\Delta m = 2m_p + 2m_n - m_\alpha = 0.030376\ \text{u}$
Step 2: Binding energy
$E_b = \Delta m \times 931.5 = 28.3$ MeV
Step 3: Binding energy per nucleon
BE/A = $28.3/4 = 7.07$ MeV/nucleon
The $\alpha$ particle is very stable — which is why $\alpha$ decay emits $\alpha$ particles rather than individual nucleons.
📐 核反应中的 $Q$ 值计算 / $Q$-Value in Nuclear Reactions
对于反应 $a + b \to c + d$:
$Q = (m_a + m_b - m_c - m_d) \times c^2$
$Q > 0$:放能反应(exothermic / exoergic)
$Q < 0$:吸能反应(endothermic / endoergic)
例:$^{235}_{92}\text{U} + n \to ^{141}_{56}\text{Ba} + ^{92}_{36}\text{Kr} + 3n$
$m(^{235}\text{U}) = 235.0439\ \text{u}$
$m({}^{141}\text{Ba}) = 140.9144\ \text{u}$
$m({}^{92}\text{Kr}) = 91.9262\ \text{u}$
$m_n = 1.008665\ \text{u}$
反应前质量:$235.0439 + 1.008665 = 236.0526\ \text{u}$
反应后质量:$140.9144 + 91.9262 + 3 \times 1.008665 = 140.9144 + 91.9262 + 3.025995 = 235.8666\ \text{u}$
$Q = (236.0526 - 235.8666) \times 931.5 = 0.1860 \times 931.5 = 173.3$ MeV
每个 $^{235}\text{U}$ 裂变释放约 173 MeV,$1\ \text{mol}\ ^{235}\text{U}$(235 g)释放:
$173\ \text{MeV} \times 6.02 \times 10^{23} = 1.04 \times 10^{26}\ \text{MeV} \approx 1.67 \times 10^{13}$ J
这相当于约 4000 吨煤燃烧释放的能量!
For $a + b \to c + d$:
$Q = (m_a + m_b - m_c - m_d) \times c^2$
$Q > 0$: exothermic; $Q < 0$: endothermic
Example: $^{235}\text{U} + n \to ^{141}\text{Ba} + ^{92}\text{Kr} + 3n$
$Q = (236.0526 - 235.8666) \times 931.5 = 173.3$ MeV
One mole of $^{235}\text{U}$ (235 g) releases $1.67 \times 10^{13}$ J — equivalent to burning 4000 tonnes of coal!
解题过程 / Solution
$^6_3\text{Li}$ 有 3 个质子和 3 个中子
(a) $\Delta m = 3 \times 1.007276 + 3 \times 1.008665 - 6.01512$
$= 3.021828 + 3.025995 - 6.01512$
$= 6.047823 - 6.01512 = 0.032703\ \text{u}$
(b) $E_b = 0.032703 \times 931.5 = 30.46$ MeV
(c) BE/A = $30.46 / 6 = 5.08$ MeV/nucleon
(a) $\Delta m = 3 \times 1.007276 + 3 \times 1.008665 - 6.01512 = 0.032703\ \text{u}$
(b) $E_b = 0.032703 \times 931.5 = 30.46$ MeV
(c) BE/A = $30.46 / 6 = 5.08$ MeV/nucleon
已知质量:$m(^{14}\text{N}) = 14.00307\ \text{u}$, $m(\alpha) = 4.00260\ \text{u}$, $m(^{17}\text{O}) = 16.99913\ \text{u}$, $m(p) = 1.00728\ \text{u}$。
求该反应的 $Q$ 值(MeV)。
解题过程 / Solution
反应前质量:$14.00307 + 4.00260 = 18.00567\ \text{u}$
反应后质量:$16.99913 + 1.00728 = 18.00641\ \text{u}$
$Q = (18.00567 - 18.00641) \times 931.5$
$Q = (-0.00074) \times 931.5 = -0.689$ MeV
$Q < 0$,这是吸能反应。需要入射 $\alpha$ 粒子的动能不小于 $|Q|$(且由于动量守恒,还需要额外能量)才能发生反应。这个反应是由 Rutherford 在 1919 年首次实现的人工核嬗变(artificial transmutation)。
$Q = (18.00567 - 18.00641) \times 931.5 = -0.689$ MeV
$Q < 0$ — endothermic reaction. Requires the incoming $\alpha$ particle to have kinetic energy exceeding $|Q|$. This was the first artificial transmutation achieved by Rutherford in 1919.
7.4 粒子物理 / Particle Physics
标准模型 / The Standard Model
$$\text{物质粒子: } \begin{pmatrix} u \\ d \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} c \\ s \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} t \\ b \end{pmatrix} \quad \begin{pmatrix} e \\ \nu_e \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} \mu \\ \nu_\mu \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} \tau \\ \nu_\tau \end{pmatrix}$$
费米子(fermions,自旋 1/2)——构成物质:
• 夸克(quarks):上(u)、下(d)、粲(c)、奇(s)、顶(t)、底(b)。夸克带分数电荷($+\frac23 e$ 或 $-\frac13 e$)。夸克不能单独存在(色禁闭 color confinement),必须组成强子。
• 轻子(leptons):电子(e)、$\mu$ 子(muon)、$\tau$ 子(tau)及其对应的中微子。轻子可以单独存在。
玻色子(bosons,自旋 1)——传递相互作用:
• 光子($\gamma$)——电磁力
• $W^+, W^-, Z^0$——弱核力
• 胶子(gluon, $g$)——强核力
• 希格斯粒子(Higgs, $H^0$)——质量起源,自旋 0
Fermions (spin 1/2) — matter constituents:
• Quarks: up (u), down (d), charm (c), strange (s), top (t), bottom (b). Quarks carry fractional charges ($+\frac23 e$ or $-\frac13 e$). Quarks cannot exist alone (color confinement) — they form hadrons.
• Leptons: electron (e), muon ($\mu$), tau ($\tau$), and their neutrinos. Leptons can exist individually.
Bosons (spin 1) — force carriers:
• Photon ($\gamma$) — electromagnetic force
• $W^+, W^-, Z^0$ — weak nuclear force
• Gluon ($g$) — strong nuclear force
• Higgs ($H^0$) — origin of mass, spin 0
强子分类 / Hadrons: Baryons and Mesons
$$\text{重子(3 夸克): } p(uud), n(udd) \qquad \text{介子(夸克-反夸克): } \pi^+(u\bar d), K^0(d\bar s)$$
• 重子(baryons):由 3 个夸克组成。质子 $p = uud$,中子 $n = udd$。重子数守恒(baryon number conservation):重子数 $B = 1$,反重子 $B = -1$。
• 介子(mesons):由 1 个夸克和 1 个反夸克组成。$\pi^+ = u\bar d$(正π介子)。介子数不守恒,但轻子数守恒。
重子数守恒:在核反应和粒子反应中,反应前后重子数总和不变。这就是质子稳定的原因——质子是最轻的重子,衰变会破坏重子数守恒。
• Baryons: 3 quarks. Proton $p = uud$, neutron $n = udd$. Baryon number is conserved: $B = 1$ for baryons, $B = -1$ for antibaryons.
• Mesons: 1 quark + 1 antiquark. $\pi^+ = u\bar d$. Meson number is not conserved, but lepton number is conserved.
Baryon number conservation: total baryon number is conserved in all nuclear and particle reactions. This is why the proton is stable — it's the lightest baryon, and its decay would violate baryon number conservation.
反物质 / Antimatter
$$e^- + e^+ \to \gamma + \gamma \quad \text{(湮灭)} \qquad \gamma \to e^- + e^+ \quad \text{(对产生)}$$
• 正电子(positron, $e^+$):电子的反粒子,电荷 $+e$
• 反质子(antiproton, $\bar p$):质子反粒子,电荷 $-e$
• 反中子(antineutron, $\bar n$):中子反粒子,磁矩方向相反
湮灭(annihilation):粒子与反粒子相遇时转化为纯能量(光子):$e^- + e^+ \to \gamma + \gamma$
对产生(pair production):高能光子经过原子核附近时,转化为粒子-反粒子对:$\gamma \to e^- + e^+$(需要光子能量 $\geq 2m_e c^2 = 1.022$ MeV)
反物质在 PET 扫描中有重要应用——正电子湮灭产生的 $\gamma$ 光子用于定位。
• Positron ($e^+$): electron's antiparticle, charge $+e$
• Antiproton ($\bar p$): proton's antiparticle, charge $-e$
• Antineutron ($\bar n$): neutron's antiparticle, opposite magnetic moment
Annihilation: particle + antiparticle → pure energy (photons): $e^- + e^+ \to \gamma + \gamma$
Pair production: high-energy photon → particle-antiparticle pair: $\gamma \to e^- + e^+$ (requires $E_\gamma \geq 2m_e c^2 = 1.022$ MeV)
Antimatter has important applications in PET scans — the $\gamma$ photons from positron annihilation are used for localization.
四种基本力 / Four Fundamental Forces
$$\text{强核力 > 电磁力 > 弱核力 > 引力}$$
| 力 / Force | 相对强度 | 传递粒子 | 作用范围 | 作用对象 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 强核力 / Strong nuclear | 1 | 胶子 (g) | $\sim 10^{-15}$ m | 夸克、核子 |
| 电磁力 / Electromagnetic | $10^{-2}$ | 光子 ($\gamma$) | $\infty$ | 带电粒子 |
| 弱核力 / Weak nuclear | $10^{-5}$ | $W^\pm, Z^0$ | $< 10^{-17}$ m | 夸克、轻子 |
| 引力 / Gravity | $10^{-39}$ | 引力子 (graviton, 理论) | $\infty$ | 所有有质量的粒子 |
强核力将原子核中的质子和中子束缚在一起,克服质子间的电磁排斥力。它是短程力,在 $10^{-15}$ m 范围内远强于电磁力。
弱核力引起 $\beta$ 衰变和中微子相互作用。作用范围极短,强度弱于电磁力和强核力。
四种力的统一——大统一理论(Grand Unified Theory, GUT)是物理学的重要前沿。
| Force | Relative Strength | Carrier Particle | Range | Acts On |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Strong nuclear | 1 | Gluon (g) | $\sim 10^{-15}$ m | Quarks, nucleons |
| Electromagnetic | $10^{-2}$ | Photon ($\gamma$) | $\infty$ | Charged particles |
| Weak nuclear | $10^{-5}$ | $W^\pm, Z^0$ | $< 10^{-17}$ m | Quarks, leptons |
| Gravity | $10^{-39}$ | Graviton (theoretical) | $\infty$ | All massive particles |
The strong nuclear force binds protons and neutrons in the nucleus, overcoming electromagnetic repulsion. It's a short-range force, much stronger than electromagnetism at $\sim 10^{-15}$ m.
Weak nuclear force is responsible for $\beta$ decay and neutrino interactions. Very short range, weaker than EM and strong forces.
Unification of all four forces — the Grand Unified Theory (GUT) — is a major frontier in physics.
费曼图简介 / Introduction to Feynman Diagrams
基本规则:
• 实线(straight line)表示费米子(如电子、夸克)
• 波浪线(wavy line)表示光子
• 螺旋线(spring/curly line)表示胶子
• 虚线(dashed line)表示 $W/Z$ 玻色子或希格斯粒子
• 顶点(vertex)是相互作用发生的地方
• 箭头方向:粒子向前(时间方向),反粒子向后
常见费曼图:
• QED 顶点:电子发射/吸收光子
• $\beta$ 衰变:中子 $d \to u + e^- + \bar\nu_e$(通过 $W^-$ 传递)
• $e^-e^+$ 湮灭:$e^- + e^+ \to \gamma$(QED)
Basic rules:
• Solid lines: fermions (e.g., electrons, quarks)
• Wavy lines: photons
• Curly/spring lines: gluons
• Dashed lines: $W/Z$ bosons or Higgs
• Vertices: where interactions occur
• Arrow direction: particles forward in time, antiparticles backward
Common diagrams:
• QED vertex: electron emitting/absorbing a photon
• $\beta$ decay: $d \to u + e^- + \bar\nu_e$ (via $W^-$ exchange)
• $e^-e^+$ annihilation: $e^- + e^+ \to \gamma$ (QED)
📐 费曼图示例:$\beta^-$ 衰变 / Feynman Diagram Example: $\beta^-$ Decay
中子 $n(udd)$ 中的下夸克 $d$ 通过发射 $W^-$ 玻色子变成上夸克 $u$,从而中子变为质子:
$n \to p + e^- + \bar\nu_e$
或者从夸克层面:$d \to u + W^-$,然后 $W^- \to e^- + \bar\nu_e$
费曼图中:
• 下夸克 $d$ 线从左上进入,在顶点处变成上夸克 $u$ 线向右上出射
• 在顶点处发射 $W^-$ 玻色子(虚线)
• $W^-$ 随后衰变为电子 $e^-$ 和反电子中微子 $\bar\nu_e$
注意:弱相互作用的顶点涉及 $W^\pm$ 或 $Z^0$ 玻色子。$\beta$ 衰变是弱相互作用的典型过程。
费曼图的价值:
• 直观展示粒子相互作用的微观过程
• 可以通过费曼规则计算反应概率(散射截面)
• 帮助验证守恒定律(能量、动量、电荷、重子数、轻子数、色荷等)
The down quark $d$ inside the neutron emits a $W^-$ boson and becomes an up quark $u$, turning the neutron into a proton:
$n \to p + e^- + \bar\nu_e$
At quark level: $d \to u + W^-$, then $W^- \to e^- + \bar\nu_e$
In the diagram:
• The $d$ quark line enters from the top-left, transforms to $u$ at the vertex (top-right outgoing)
• A $W^-$ boson (dashed line) is emitted at the vertex
• $W^-$ decays into $e^-$ and $\bar\nu_e$
Note: weak interaction vertices involve $W^\pm$ or $Z^0$ bosons. $\beta$ decay is a classic weak interaction process.
Value of Feynman diagrams:
• Visual representation of particle interaction processes
• Enable calculation of reaction probabilities (cross-sections) via Feynman rules
• Help verify conservation laws (energy, momentum, charge, baryon number, lepton number, color charge)
解题过程 / Solution
电荷:$-\frac23 + (-\frac13) = -1$ ✓ 介子数 = 1
$K^+$:$u \bar s$(上夸克 + 奇异反夸克)
电荷:$+\frac23 + (+\frac13) = +1$ ✓ 奇异数 = 0 - (-1) = +1
$\Sigma^+$:$uus$(上 + 上 + 奇异夸克)
电荷:$+\frac23 + \frac23 + (-\frac13) = +1$ ✓
重子数 = 1 ✓
奇异数 = $-1$(一个奇异夸克)✓
$K^+$: $u \bar s$ (up + anti-strange). Charge: $+2/3 + (+1/3) = +1$ ✓
$\Sigma^+$: $uus$ (up + up + strange). Charge: $+2/3 + 2/3 + (-1/3) = +1$ ✓. B = 1, S = -1. ✓
解题过程 / Solution
需要满足能量守恒:$E_\gamma \geq 2m_e c^2$(产生一对粒子静止质点能量)
$m_e = 9.11 \times 10^{-31}$ kg
$2m_e c^2 = 2 \times 9.11 \times 10^{-31} \times (3.00 \times 10^8)^2$
$= 2 \times 9.11 \times 10^{-31} \times 9.00 \times 10^{16}$
$= 1.640 \times 10^{-13}$ J
转换为 MeV:$E = 1.640 \times 10^{-13} / (1.60 \times 10^{-13}\ \text{J/MeV}) = 1.022$ MeV
所以最小光子能量为 1.022 MeV。
实际上,由于动量守恒,对产生通常需要原子核参与(带走多余动量),实际所需光子能量略高。反之,$e^- + e^+ \to \gamma + \gamma$ 湮灭也释放 1.022 MeV(两个 0.511 MeV 的 $\gamma$ 光子)。
Minimum energy: $E_\gamma \geq 2m_e c^2 = 1.022$ MeV
In practice, a nucleus is needed to conserve momentum, so slightly more energy is required. Annihilation: $e^- + e^+ \to \gamma + \gamma$ releases two 0.511 MeV $\gamma$ photons.
🏆 挑战题 / Challenge Problems
(a) 写出第一步 $\alpha$ 衰变的核反应方程;
(b) 第二步衰变产物 $^{228}\text{Ra}$ 的半衰期为 5.75 年。初始有 $2.0 \times 10^{20}$ 个 $^{228}\text{Ra}$ 原子核,求 11.5 年后剩余的数量;
(c) 第三步衰变产物 $^{228}\text{Ac}$ 的半衰期为 6.13 小时。求 $^{228}\text{Ac}$ 的衰变常数 $\lambda$(单位 h$^{-1}$ 和 s$^{-1}$);
(d) 如果 $^{228}\text{Ac}$ 初始活度为 $3.0 \times 10^6$ Bq,求 12.26 小时后的活度。
(a) Write the first $\alpha$ decay equation; (b) $^{228}\text{Ra}$ $T_{1/2}=5.75$ yrs, initial $2.0\times10^{20}$ nuclei, find remaining after 11.5 yrs; (c) $^{228}\text{Ac}$ $T_{1/2}=6.13$ h, find $\lambda$; (d) Initial activity $3.0\times10^6$ Bq, find activity after 12.26 h.
解题过程 / Solution
(b) 11.5 年 = $11.5/5.75 = 2$ 个半衰期
$N = N_0 (1/2)^n = 2.0 \times 10^{20} \times (1/2)^2 = 2.0 \times 10^{20} / 4 = 5.0 \times 10^{19}$ 个
(c) $\lambda = \ln 2 / T_{1/2} = 0.693 / 6.13 = 0.113$ h$^{-1}$
$\lambda = 0.113 / 3600 = 3.14 \times 10^{-5}$ s$^{-1}$
(d) 12.26 h = $12.26/6.13 = 2$ 个半衰期
$A = A_0 (1/2)^2 = 3.0 \times 10^6 / 4 = 7.5 \times 10^5$ Bq
或用 $A = A_0 e^{-\lambda t} = 3.0 \times 10^6 \times e^{-0.113 \times 12.26} = 3.0 \times 10^6 \times e^{-1.386} = 3.0 \times 10^6 \times 0.250 = 7.5 \times 10^5$ Bq ✓
(b) 2 half-lives → $N = 2.0\times10^{20}/4 = 5.0\times10^{19}$
(c) $\lambda = \ln 2/6.13 = 0.113$ h$^{-1}$ = $3.14\times10^{-5}$ s$^{-1}$
(d) $A = 3.0\times10^6 \times (1/2)^2 = 7.5\times10^5$ Bq
$m(^{235}\text{U}) = 235.04393\ \text{u}, m(n) = 1.008665\ \text{u}$
$m(^{141}\text{Ba}) = 140.91441\ \text{u}, m(^{92}\text{Kr}) = 91.92621\ \text{u}$
(a) 写出完整的裂变反应方程并计算 $Q$ 值;
(b) 已知 $^{235}\text{U}$ 的结合能约为 1784 MeV,求其平均结合能 BE/A;
(c) 产物核的 BE/A 约为 8.4-8.5 MeV/nucleon。粗略计算一个 $^{235}\text{U}$ 裂变释放的能量,并与 (a) 中的 $Q$ 值比较。
解题过程 / Solution
反应前质量:$235.04393 + 1.008665 = 236.05260\ \text{u}$
反应后质量:$140.91441 + 91.92621 + 3 \times 1.008665 = 140.91441 + 91.92621 + 3.025995 = 235.86662\ \text{u}$
$Q = (236.05260 - 235.86662) \times 931.5 = 0.18598 \times 931.5 = 173.2$ MeV
(b) $\text{BE/A} = 1784 / 235 = 7.59$ MeV/nucleon
(c) 平均每个核子释放能量 ≈ 产物 BE/A - 母核 BE/A ≈ 8.45 - 7.59 = 0.86 MeV/nucleon
$^{235}\text{U}$ 有 235 个核子:$E \approx 0.86 \times 235 = 202$ MeV
与 (a) 中 173.2 MeV 接近(差异源于不同裂变产物组合)。实际 $^{235}\text{U}$ 裂变释放约 200 MeV。
(b) BE/A of $^{235}\text{U} = 1784/235 = 7.59$ MeV/nucleon
(c) Energy released $\approx (8.45 - 7.59) \times 235 \approx 202$ MeV — close to (a). Actual $^{235}\text{U}$ fission releases $\sim 200$ MeV.
(a) 求该光子对应的能级跃迁(即确定 $n_i$ 和 $n_f$);
(b) 如果电子从 $n = 6$ 跃迁到 $n = 2$,发射波长是多少?属于什么线系?
(c) 该光子的动量大小是多少?
(d) 如果一个电子具有与该光子相同的动量,电子的动能是多少 eV?
解题过程 / Solution
$E_n = -13.6/n^2$ eV
$E_2 = -13.6/4 = -3.40$ eV
$E_4 = -13.6/16 = -0.85$ eV
$\Delta E = E_4 - E_2 = -0.85 - (-3.40) = 2.55$ eV ✓
所以是 $n = 4 \to n = 2$($H_\beta$ 线)
(b) $\frac{1}{\lambda} = R_H (1/4 - 1/36) = 1.097\times10^7 \times (0.25 - 0.0278) = 1.097\times10^7 \times 0.2222 = 2.438\times10^6$ m$^{-1}$
$\lambda = 1/2.438\times10^6 = 4.10\times10^{-7}$ m = 410 nm(紫光)
(c) $p = h/\lambda = 6.63\times10^{-34}/(486\times10^{-9}) = 1.36\times10^{-27}$ kg·m/s
(d) $E_k = p^2/2m = (1.36\times10^{-27})^2/(2\times9.11\times10^{-31})$
$= 1.85\times10^{-54}/1.822\times10^{-30} = 1.015\times10^{-24}$ J
$= 1.015\times10^{-24}/(1.60\times10^{-19}) = 6.34\times10^{-6}$ eV(可忽略不计)
(b) $\lambda = 410$ nm (violet)
(c) $p = h/\lambda = 1.36\times10^{-27}$ kg·m/s
(d) $E_k = p^2/2m = 6.34\times10^{-6}$ eV — negligible
$4^1_1\text{H} \to ^4_2\text{He} + 2e^+ + 2\nu_e$
已知:$m(^1_1\text{H}) = 1.007825\ \text{u}$(原子质量,含电子),$m(^4_2\text{He}) = 4.002603\ \text{u}$(原子质量),$m_e = 0.000549\ \text{u}$。
(a) 计算质量亏损和释放的能量(MeV);
(b) 太阳每秒消耗约 $6.0 \times 10^{11}$ kg 氢。求太阳的功率(W);
(c) 太阳的质量约为 $2.0 \times 10^{30}$ kg。假设太阳总质量的 10% 可用于核聚变(核心区),太阳还能"燃烧"多少年?
解题过程 / Solution
使用原子质量计算时注意:4 个 H 原子质量含 4 个电子,1 个 He 原子质量含 2 个电子,另外产生 2 个正电子——电子总质量守恒。
反应前:$4 \times 1.007825 = 4.031300\ \text{u}$
反应后:$4.002603 + 2 \times 0.000549 = 4.002603 + 0.001098 = 4.003701\ \text{u}$
(2 个正电子质量 = 2 个电子质量)
$\Delta m = 4.031300 - 4.003701 = 0.027599\ \text{u}$
$E = 0.027599 \times 931.5 = 25.71$ MeV
实际释放能量约 26.7 MeV(因为中微子带走一部分能量,此处不计)。每 4 个质子产生 26.7 MeV。
(b) 4 个质子质量 $= 4 \times 1.6726 \times 10^{-27} = 6.690 \times 10^{-27}$ kg
每千克氢聚变释放能量:$26.7 \times 1.60 \times 10^{-13} / 6.690 \times 10^{-27} = 6.39 \times 10^{14}$ J/kg
太阳功率:$P = 6.0 \times 10^{11} \times 6.39 \times 10^{14} = 3.83 \times 10^{26}$ W
(实际太阳功率约为 $3.8 \times 10^{26}$ W ✓)
(c) 可用燃料:$2.0 \times 10^{30} \times 0.10 = 2.0 \times 10^{29}$ kg
每年消耗:$6.0 \times 10^{11} \times 365 \times 24 \times 3600 = 1.89 \times 10^{19}$ kg/年
剩余寿命:$2.0 \times 10^{29} / 1.89 \times 10^{19} = 1.06 \times 10^{10}$ 年 ≈ 100 亿年
太阳已存在约 46 亿年,还有约 50 亿年寿命。
(b) $P = 6.0\times10^{11} \times 6.39\times10^{14} = 3.83\times10^{26}$ W (actual solar power $\approx 3.8\times10^{26}$ W ✓)
(c) Remaining lifetime $\approx 1.06\times10^{10}$ years ($\sim$10 billion years total). Sun is $\sim$4.6 billion years old, with $\sim$5 billion years remaining.
(a) 写出 $\pi^-$ 和质子的夸克组成及总电荷;
(b) 如果反应是 $\pi^- + p \to K^0 + \Lambda^0$,其中 $K^0 = d\bar s$,$\Lambda^0 = uds$。验证重子数守恒;
(c) 计算反应前后总电荷数,验证电荷守恒;
(d) 如果 $\Lambda^0$ 随后衰变为 $p + \pi^-$,写出发射粒子的费曼图描述($\Lambda^0 = uds$ 的内部夸克通过弱相互作用衰变)。
解题过程 / Solution
质子 $p = uud$:$Q = +\frac23 + \frac23 + (-\frac13) = +1$
(b) $\pi^- + p \to K^0 + \Lambda^0$
反应前重子数:$\pi^-$ 的 $B = 0$(介子),$p$ 的 $B = +1$(重子),总和 $= +1$
反应后重子数:$K^0$ 的 $B = 0$(介子),$\Lambda^0$ 的 $B = +1$(重子),总和 $= +1$ ✓
(c) 反应前总电荷:$-1 + 1 = 0$
$K^0 = d\bar s$:$Q = -\frac13 + (+\frac13) = 0$
$\Lambda^0 = uds$:$Q = +\frac23 + (-\frac13) + (-\frac13) = 0$
反应后总电荷:$0 + 0 = 0$ ✓
(d) $\Lambda^0 \to p + \pi^-$:
$\Lambda^0 = uds$ 中的奇异夸克 $s$ 通过弱相互作用衰变:$s \to u + W^-$,然后 $W^- \to \bar u + d$(形成 $\pi^-$)。
实际上:$\Lambda^0(uds) \to p(uud) + \pi^-(\bar u d)$
夸克层面:$s \to u + e^- + \bar\nu_e$?不——这里没有轻子。正确描述:$s$ 夸克发射 $W^-$ 玻色子变为 $u$ 夸克,然后 $W^-$ 产生一个 $\bar u d$ 对(即 $\pi^-$)。
费曼图:奇异夸克线从 $\Lambda^0$ 出发,在顶点处变为 $u$ 夸克进入质子,同时发出 $W^-$ 玻色子线,$W^-$ 衰变为 $\bar u$ 和 $d$ 形成 $\pi^-$。
(b) Baryon number: before $B=0+1=1$, after $B=0+1=1$ ✓
(c) Charge: before $-1+1=0$, after $0+0=0$ ✓
(d) $\Lambda^0 \to p + \pi^-$: $s$ quark in $\Lambda^0$ emits $W^-$, becomes $u$ in the proton; $W^-$ produces $\bar u + d$, forming $\pi^-$. This is mediated by the weak interaction.
附录:核心公式速查 / Formula Reference
| 知识点 / Topic | 公式 / Formula | 说明 / Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 卢瑟福散射角 | $b = \frac{kq_\alpha Q_N}{m_\alpha v^2}\cot\frac{\theta}{2}$ | $b$ = 碰撞参数 |
| 玻尔轨道半径 | $r_n = n^2 a_0$ | $a_0 = 0.529\ \text{\AA}$ |
| 玻尔能级 | $E_n = -13.6/n^2$ eV | 氢原子 |
| 光子能量 / Photon E | $E = hf = hc/\lambda$ | $h = 6.63 \times 10^{-34}$ J·s |
| 里德伯公式 / Rydberg | $1/\lambda = R_H(1/n_f^2 - 1/n_i^2)$ | $R_H = 1.097 \times 10^7$ m$^{-1}$ |
| 核素记号 / Nuclide | $^A_Z\text{X}$ | $N = A-Z$ |
| 衰变定律 / Decay Law | $N = N_0 e^{-\lambda t}$ | $dN/dt = -\lambda N$ |
| 半衰期 / Half-life | $T_{1/2} = \ln 2/\lambda$ | $= 0.693/\lambda$ |
| 活度 / Activity | $A = \lambda N = A_0 e^{-\lambda t}$ | 单位 Bq |
| 质能等价 / $E=mc^2$ | $E = mc^2$ | $1\ \text{u} = 931.5$ MeV/$c^2$ |
| 质量亏损 / Mass Defect | $\Delta m = Zm_p + Nm_n - m_{\text{核}}$ | $m_p, m_n$ 已知 |
| 结合能 / Binding Energy | $E_b = \Delta m \cdot c^2$ | BE/A = $E_b/A$ |
| $Q$ 值 / $Q$-value | $Q = \Delta m \cdot c^2$ | $>0$ 放能,$<0$ 吸能 |
| 衰变种类 / Decay | $\alpha/\beta^-/\beta^+/\gamma$ | 各守衡律 |
| 夸克电荷 / Quarks | $u(+\frac23 e)$, $d(-\frac13 e)$ | $p=uud$, $n=udd$ |
| 对产生 / Pair Prod. | $\gamma \to e^- + e^+$ | $E_\gamma \geq 1.022$ MeV |
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